Iron Age & Early States

Iron culture arrives

Iron farming tools and weapons spread, boosting productivity and intensifying wars of conquest.

Establishment of Buyeo

Buyeo arose on the broad plains along the Songhua River in Manchuria. It was a five-tribe confederacy in which the heads of the horse, ox, pig, and dog clans governed their own tribes autonomously.

Establishment of Han Commanderies

After Gojoseon fell, the Han dynasty established four commanderies — Lelang, Lintun, Zhenfan, and Xuantu — on its former territory. They were gradually reduced as the native population resisted.

Buyeo's Yeonggo Harvest Ritual

In the twelfth month, Buyeo held a heaven-worship ritual called Yeonggo, during which people offered sacrifices, enjoyed singing and dancing, and released prisoners. It was a communal rite of an agrarian society.

Iron Production and Export of Byeonhan

The Byeonhan region in the lower Nakdong River produced high-quality iron in abundance. Iron ingots were used like currency, and iron was exported as far as Nakrang (Lelang) and Wa (Japan).

Buyeo's Sachuldo Administrative Divisions

Buyeo was a federated kingdom in which the aristocratic chiefs (ga) — the Maga, Uga, Jeoga, and Guga — each governed their own administrative district called a sachuldo under the king.

Trade with China via Myeongdojeon and Banliang Coins

The excavation of Chinese coins such as the myeongdojeon (Ming knife coin) and banliang coin from Iron Age sites demonstrates that the Korean Peninsula engaged in active trade with China at the time.

Separation of Politics and Religion in the Samhan, and the Sodo Sanctuary

In the Samhan — Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan — political rulers (chiefs) and priests (Cheon'gun) were separate figures. The Sodo, a sacred precinct governed by the Cheon'gun, was inviolable even to criminals.

Chiefdom Societies of Okjeo and Dongye

Okjeo on the eastern coast of Hamgyeong Province and Dongye on the eastern coast of Gangwon were governed by chieftains called eupgun and samno rather than kings. Okjeo practiced child betrothal, while Dongye prohibited marriage within the same clan.

Dongye's Mucheon Ritual and Local Specialties

Dongye held an annual heaven-worship festival called Mucheon in the tenth month. It was renowned for specialties such as the Dan'gung bow, Gwahama horse, and spotted seal skin, and violations of a neighboring tribe's territory required restitution called chaek'hwa.

Goguryeo's Dongmaeng Ritual and the Seouk Marriage Custom

Goguryeo, founded in Jolbon, began as a five-tribe confederacy and held an annual heaven-worship festival called Dongmaeng in the tenth month. There was also a marriage custom called Seoukje, in which a son-in-law lived at his wife's home for a set period.

Goguryeo's Grain Loan Law (Jindaebeop)

King Gogukcheon appointed Eulpaso and instituted the jindaebeop, a poverty-relief system that lent grain to the poor in spring and collected repayment in autumn.

Related figures: Eulpaso

The Dure Cooperative Labor System of the Samhan

In the Samhan, people held heavenly rites after the May planting and October harvest, farmed together in cooperative dure groups, and strengthened communal bonds through song and dance.

Guanqiu Jian's Invasion of Goguryeo

Wei dynasty general Guanqiu Jian invaded Goguryeo and captured the capital Hwando Fortress. King Dongcheon fled toward Okjeo, but Goguryeo eventually recovered its national strength.